Digestive and Liver Disease
Volume 42, Issue 11 , Pages 757-764 , November 2010

Current topics in autoimmune hepatitis

In memoriam of our magister ludi, the late Professor Francesco Bianco Bianchi (1939–2010).

Received 31 March 2010 ,Accepted 31 May 2010.

References 

  1. Krawitt EL. Autoimmune hepatitis. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:54–66
  2. Johnson PJ, McFarlane IG. Meeting report: International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group. Hepatology. 1993;18:998–1005
  3. Alvarez F, Berg PA, Bianchi FB, et al. International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group Report: review of criteria for diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol. 1999;31:929–938
  4. Hennes EM, Zeniya M, Czaja AJ, et al. Simplified criteria for the diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology. 2008;48:169–176
  5. Czaja AJ. Performance parameters of the diagnostic scoring systems for autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology. 2008;48:1540–1548
  6. Muratori P, Granito A, Pappas G, et al. Validation of simplified diagnostic criteria for autoimmune hepatitis in Italian patients. Hepatology. 2009;49:1782–1783
  7. Wiegard C, Schramm C, Lohse AW. Scoring systems for the diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis: past, present, and future. Semin Liver Dis. 2009;29:254–261
  8. Miyake Y, Iwasaki Y, Kobashi H, et al. Clinical features of autoimmune hepatitis diagnosed based on simplified criteria of the International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group. Dig Liver Dis. 2010;42:210–215
  9. Czaja AJ, Freese DK. Diagnosis and treatment of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology. 2002;36:479–497
  10. Yeoman AD, Longhi MS, Heneghan MA. Review article: the modern management of autoimmune hepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2010;31:771–787
  11. Verma S, Gunuwan B, Mendler M, et al. Factors predicting relapse and poor outcome in type I autoimmune hepatitis: role of cirrhosis development, patterns of transaminases during remission and plasma cell activity in the liver biopsy. Am J Gastroenterol. 2004;99:1510–1516
  12. Montano-Loza AJ, Carpenter HA, Czaja AJ. Improving the end point of corticosteroid therapy in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis to reduce the frequency of relapse. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007;102:1005–1012
  13. Miyake Y, Iwasaki Y, Terada R, et al. Persistent normalization of serum alanine aminotransferase levels improves the prognosis of type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol. 2005;43:951–957
  14. Muratori P, Granito A, Quarneti C, et al. Autoimmune hepatitis in Italy: the Bologna experience. J Hepatol. 2009;50:1210–1218
  15. Verma S. In type 1 autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), should remission be redefined as normalization of transaminases?. J Hepatol. 2006;44:819–820820–1
  16. Al-Chalabi T, Heneghan MA. Remission in autoimmune hepatitis: what is it, and can it ever be achieved?. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007;102:1013–1015
  17. Manns MP, Czaja AJ, Gorham JD, et al. Diagnosis and management of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology, in press.
  18. Castera L, Forns X, Alberti A. Non-invasive evaluation of liver fibrosis using transient elastography. J Hepatol. 2008;48:835–847
  19. Zhang YG, Wang BE, Wang TL, et al. Assessment of hepatic fibrosis by transient elastography in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Pathol Int. 2010;60:284–290
  20. Anastasiou J, Alisa A, Virtue S, et al. Noninvasive markers of fibrosis and inflammation in clinical practice: prospective comparison with liver biopsy. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2010;22:474–480
  21. Obara N, Ueno Y, Fukushima K, et al. Transient elastography for measurement of liver stiffness measurement can detect early significant hepatic fibrosis in Japanese patients with viral and nonviral liver diseases. J Gastroenterol. 2008;43:720–728
  22. Romanque P, Stickel F, Dufour JF. Disproportionally high results of transient elastography in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Liver Int. 2008;28:1177–1178
  23. Bianchi FB, Muratori P, Muratori L. New autoantibodies and autoantigens in autoimmune hepatitis. Clin Liver Dis. 2002;6:785–797
  24. Vergani D, Alvarez F, Bianchi FB, et al. Liver autoimmune serology: a consensus statement from the committee for autoimmune serology of the International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group. J Hepatol. 2004;41:677–683
  25. Bogdanos DP, Mieli-Vergani G, Vergani D. Autoantibodies and their antigens in autoimmune hepatitis. Semin Liver Dis. 2009;29:241–253
  26. Martini E, Abuaf N, Cavalli F, et al. Antibody to liver cytosol (anti-LC1) in patients with autoimmune chronic active hepatitis type 2. Hepatology. 1988;8:1662–1666
  27. Manns M, Gerken G, Kyriatsoulis A, et al. Characterisation of a new subgroup of autoimmune chronic active hepatitis by autoantibodies against a soluble liver antigen. Lancet. 1987;1:292–294
  28. Muratori L, Cataleta M, Muratori P, et al. Detection of anti-liver cytosol antibody type 1 (anti-LC1) by immunodiffusion, counterimmunoelectrophoresis and immunoblotting: comparison of different techniques. J Immunol Methods. 1995;187:259–264
  29. Muratori L, Cataleta M, Muratori P, et al. Liver/kidney microsomal antibody type 1 and liver cytosol antibody type 1 concentrations in type 2 autoimmune hepatitis. Gut. 1998;42:721–726
  30. Bridoux-Henno L, Maggiore G, Johanet C, et al. Features and outcome of autoimmune hepatitis type 2 presenting with isolated positivity for anti-liver cytosol antibody. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2004;2:825–830
  31. Lapierre P, Hajoui O, Homberg JC, et al. Formiminotransferase cyclodeaminase is an organ-specific autoantigen recognized by sera of patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology. 1999;116:643–649
  32. Muratori L, Sztul E, Muratori P, et al. Distinct epitopes on formiminotransferase cyclodeaminase induce autoimmune liver cytosol antibody type 1. Hepatology. 2001;34:494–501
  33. Lapierre P, Johanet C, Alvarez F. Characterization of the B cell response of patients with anti-liver cytosol autoantibodies in type 2 autoimmune hepatitis. Eur J Immunol. 2003;33:1869–1878
  34. Lapierre P, Djilali-Saiah I, Vitozzi S, et al. A murine model of type 2 autoimmune hepatitis: xenoimmunization with human antigens. Hepatology. 2004;39:1066–1074
  35. Beland K, Lapierre P, Marceau G, et al. Anti-LC1 autoantibodies in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. J Autoimmun. 2004;22:159–166
  36. Wies I, Brunner S, Henninger J, et al. Identification of target antigen for SLA/LP autoantibodies in autoimmune hepatitis. Lancet. 2000;355:1510–1515
  37. Costa M, Rodriguez-Sanchez JL, Czaja AJ, et al. Isolation and characterization of cDNA encoding the antigenic protein of the human tRNP(Ser)Sec complex recognized by autoantibodies from patients with type-1 autoimmune hepatitis. Clin Exp Immunol. 2000;121:364–374
  38. Volkmann M, Martin L, Baurle A, et al. Soluble liver antigen: isolation of a 35-kd recombinant protein (SLA-p35) specifically recognizing sera from patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology. 2001;33:591–596
  39. Gelpi C, Sontheimer EJ, Rodriguez-Sanchez JL. Autoantibodies against a serine tRNA–protein complex implicated in cotranslational selenocysteine insertion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992;89:9739–9743
  40. Herkel J, Heidrich B, Nieraad N, et al. Fine specificity of autoantibodies to soluble liver antigen and liver/pancreas. Hepatology. 2002;35:403–408
  41. Ballot E, Homberg JC, Johanet C. Antibodies to soluble liver antigen: an additional marker in type 1 auto-immune hepatitis. J Hepatol. 2000;33:208–215
  42. Ma Y, Okamoto M, Thomas MG, et al. Antibodies to conformational epitopes of soluble liver antigen define a severe form of autoimmune liver disease. Hepatology. 2002;35:658–664
  43. Vitozzi S, Lapierre P, Djilali-Saiah I, et al. Anti-soluble liver antigen (SLA) antibodies in chronic HCV infection. Autoimmunity. 2004;37:217–222
  44. Bottazzo GF, Florin-Christensen A, Fairfax A, et al. Classification of smooth muscle autoantibodies detected by immunofluorescence. J Clin Pathol. 1976;29:403–410
  45. Granito A, Muratori L, Muratori P, et al. Antibodies to filamentous actin (F-actin) in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. J Clin Pathol. 2006;59:280–284
  46. Muratori P, Muratori L, Agostinelli D, et al. Smooth muscle antibodies and type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Autoimmunity. 2002;35:497–500
  47. Kerkar N, Hadzic N, Davies ET, et al. De-novo autoimmune hepatitis after liver transplantation. Lancet. 1998;351:409–413
  48. Andries S, Casamayou L, Sempoux C, et al. Posttransplant immune hepatitis in pediatric liver transplant recipients: incidence and maintenance therapy with azathioprine. Transplantation. 2001;72:267–272
  49. Gupta P, Hart J, Millis JM, et al. De novo hepatitis with autoimmune antibodies and atypical histology: a rare cause of late graft dysfunction after pediatric liver transplantation. Transplantation. 2001;71:664–668
  50. Heneghan MA, Portmann BC, Norris SM, et al. Graft dysfunction mimicking autoimmune hepatitis following liver transplantation in adults. Hepatology. 2001;34:464–470
  51. Hernandez HM, Kovarik P, Whitington PF, et al. Autoimmune hepatitis as a late complication of liver transplantation. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32:131–136
  52. Miyagawa-Hayashino A, Haga H, Egawa H, et al. Outcome and risk factors of de novo autoimmune hepatitis in living-donor liver transplantation. Transplantation. 2004;78:128–135
  53. Aguilera I, Wichmann I, Sousa JM, et al. Antibodies against glutathione S-transferase T1 in patients with immune hepatitis after liver transplantation. Transplant Proc. 2003;35:712
  54. Aguilera I, Sousa JM, Gavilan F, et al. Glutathione S-transferase T1 mismatch constitutes a risk factor for de novo immune hepatitis after liver transplantation. Liver Transpl. 2004;10:1166–1172
  55. Aguilera I, Sousa JM, Gavilan F, et al. Glutathione S-transferase T1 genetic mismatch is a risk factor for de novo immune hepatitis in liver transplantation. Transplant Proc. 2005;37:3968–3969
  56. Salcedo M, Rodriguez-Mahou M, Rodriguez-Sainz C, et al. Risk factors for developing de novo autoimmune hepatitis associated with anti-glutathione S-transferase T1 antibodies after liver transplantation. Liver Transpl. 2009;15:530–539
  57. Granito A, Vannini A, Quarneti C, et al. Clinical impact and behaviour of serum autoantibodies in adult liver transplantation. J Hepatol. 2010;52(Suppl. 1):S197–S198
  58. McNair AN, Moloney M, Portmann BC, et al. Autoimmune hepatitis overlapping with primary sclerosing cholangitis in five cases. Am J Gastroenterol. 1998;93:777–784
  59. Gohlke F, Lohse AW, Dienes HP, et al. Evidence for an overlap syndrome of autoimmune hepatitis and primary sclerosing cholangitis. J Hepatol. 1996;24:699–705
  60. Muratori L, Cassani F, Pappas G, et al. The hepatitic/cholestatic “overlap” syndrome: an Italian experience. Autoimmunity. 2002;35:565–568
  61. Olsson R, Glaumann H, Almer S, et al. High prevalence of small duct primary sclerosing cholangitis among patients with overlapping autoimmune hepatitis and primary sclerosing cholangitis. Eur J Intern Med. 2009;20:190–196
  62. Lohse AW, zum Buschenfelde KH, Franz B, et al. Characterization of the overlap syndrome of primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) and autoimmune hepatitis: evidence for it being a hepatitic form of PBC in genetically susceptible individuals. Hepatology. 1999;29:1078–1084
  63. Chazouilleres O, Wendum D, Serfaty L, et al. Primary biliary cirrhosis–autoimmune hepatitis overlap syndrome: clinical features and response to therapy. Hepatology. 1998;28:296–301
  64. Talwalkar JA, Keach JC, Angulo P, et al. Overlap of autoimmune hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis: an evaluation of a modified scoring system. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002;97:1191–1197
  65. Twaddell WS, Lefkowitch J, Berk PD. Evolution from primary biliary cirrhosis to primary biliary cirrhosis/autoimmune hepatitis overlap syndrome. Semin Liver Dis. 2008;28:128–134
  66. EASL clinical practice guidelines: management of cholestatic liver diseases. J Hepatol. 2009;51:237–267
  67. Muratori P, Granito A, Pappas G, et al. The serological profile of the autoimmune hepatitis/primary biliary cirrhosis overlap syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol. 2009;104:1420–1425
  68. Efe C, Purnak T, Ozaslan E, et al. The serological profile of the autoimmune hepatitis/primary biliary cirrhosis overlap syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol. 2010;105:226
  69. Nezu S, Tanaka A, Yasui H, et al. Presence of antimitochondrial autoantibodies in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;21:1448–1454
  70. Montano-Loza AJ, Carpenter HA, Czaja AJ. Frequency, behavior, and prognostic implications of antimitochondrial antibodies in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2008;42:1047–1053
  71. Mishima S, Omagari K, Ohba K, et al. Clinical implications of antimitochondrial antibodies in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis: a longitudinal study. Hepatogastroenterology. 2008;55:221–227
  72. O’Brien C, Joshi S, Feld JJ, et al. Long-term follow-up of antimitochondrial antibody-positive autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology. 2008;48:550–556
  73. Czaja AJ, Muratori P, Muratori L, et al. Diagnostic and therapeutic implications of bile duct injury in autoimmune hepatitis. Liver Int. 2004;24:322–329
  74. Bittencourt PL, Farias AQ, Porta G, et al. Frequency of concurrent autoimmune disorders in patients with autoimmune hepatitis: effect of age, gender, and genetic background. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2008;42:300–305
  75. Abdalian R, Dhar P, Jhaveri K, et al. Prevalence of sclerosing cholangitis in adults with autoimmune hepatitis: evaluating the role of routine magnetic resonance imaging. Hepatology. 2008;47:949–957
  76. Gregorio GV, Portmann B, Karani J, et al. Autoimmune hepatitis/sclerosing cholangitis overlap syndrome in childhood: a 16-year prospective study. Hepatology. 2001;33:544–553
  77. Montano-Loza AJ, Carpenter HA, Czaja AJ. Features associated with treatment failure in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis and predictive value of the model of end-stage liver disease. Hepatology. 2007;46:1138–1145
  78. Angulo P, Maor-Kendler Y, Lindor KD. Small-duct primary sclerosing cholangitis: a long-term follow-up study. Hepatology. 2002;35:1494–1500
  79. Bjornsson E, Olsson R, Bergquist A, et al. The natural history of small-duct primary sclerosing cholangitis. Gastroenterology. 2008;134:975–980
  80. Czaja AJ. Current and future treatments of autoimmune hepatitis. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2009;3:269–291
  81. Kanzler S, Gerken G, Dienes HP, et al. Cyclophosphamide as alternative immunosuppressive therapy for autoimmune hepatitis—report of three cases. Z Gastroenterol. 1997;35:571–578
  82. Burak KW, Urbanski SJ, Swain MG. Successful treatment of refractory type 1 autoimmune hepatitis with methotrexate. J Hepatol. 1998;29:990–993
  83. Kerkar N, Dugan C, Rumbo C, et al. Rapamycin successfully treats post-transplant autoimmune hepatitis. Am J Transplant. 2005;5:1085–1089
  84. Santos ES, Arosemena LR, Raez LE, et al. Successful treatment of autoimmune hepatitis and idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura with the monoclonal antibody, rituximab: case report and review of literature. Liver Int. 2006;26:625–629
  85. Carmassi F, Morale M, Puccetti R, et al. Efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in a case of autoimmune-mediated chronic active hepatitis. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1992;10:13–17
  86. Rebollo Bernardez J, Cifuentes Mimoso C, Pinar Moreno A, et al. Deflazacort for long-term maintenance of remission in type I autoimmune hepatitis. Rev Esp Enferm Dig. 1999;91:630–638
  87. Nakamura K, Yoneda M, Yokohama S, et al. Efficacy of ursodeoxycholic acid in Japanese patients with type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 1998;13:490–495
  88. Miyake Y, Iwasaki Y, Kobashi H, et al. Efficacy of ursodeoxycholic acid for Japanese patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatol Int. 2009;3:556–562
  89. de Boer NK, de Graaf P, Wilhelm AJ, et al. On the limitation of 6-tioguaninenucleotide monitoring during tioguanine treatment. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2005;22:447–451
  90. de Boer NK, van Nieuwkerk CM, Aparicio Pages MN, et al. Promising treatment of autoimmune hepatitis with 6-thioguanine after adverse events on azathioprine. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;17:457–461
  91. Fernandes NF, Redeker AG, Vierling JM, et al. Cyclosporine therapy in patients with steroid resistant autoimmune hepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 1999;94:241–248
  92. Alvarez F, Ciocca M, Canero-Velasco C, et al. Short-term cyclosporine induces a remission of autoimmune hepatitis in children. J Hepatol. 1999;30:222–227
  93. Cuarterolo M, Ciocca M, Velasco CC, et al. Follow-up of children with autoimmune hepatitis treated with cyclosporine. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2006;43:635–639
  94. Sciveres M, Caprai S, Palla G, et al. Effectiveness and safety of cyclosporine as therapy for autoimmune diseases of the liver in children and adolescents. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2004;19:209–217
  95. Ritter ML, Pirofski L. Mycophenolate mofetil: effects on cellular immune subsets, infectious complications, and antimicrobial activity. Transpl Infect Dis. 2009;11:290–297
  96. Richardson PD, James PD, Ryder SD. Mycophenolate mofetil for maintenance of remission in autoimmune hepatitis in patients resistant to or intolerant of azathioprine. J Hepatol. 2000;33:371–375
  97. Devlin SM, Swain MG, Urbanski SJ, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil for the treatment of autoimmune hepatitis in patients refractory to standard therapy. Can J Gastroenterol. 2004;18:321–326
  98. Inductivo-Yu I, Adams A, Gish RG, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil in autoimmune hepatitis patients not responsive or intolerant to standard immunosuppressive therapy. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2007;5:799–802
  99. Chatur N, Ramji A, Bain VG, et al. Transplant immunosuppressive agents in non-transplant chronic autoimmune hepatitis: the Canadian Association for the Study of Liver (CASL) experience with mycophenolate mofetil and tacrolimus. Liver Int. 2005;25:723–727
  100. Hennes EM, Oo YH, Schramm C, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil as second line therapy in autoimmune hepatitis?. Am J Gastroenterol. 2008;103:3063–3070
  101. Hlivko JT, Shiffman ML, Stravitz RT, et al. A single center review of the use of mycophenolate mofetil in the treatment of autoimmune hepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008;6:1036–1040
  102. Wolf DC, Bojito L, Facciuto M, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil for autoimmune hepatitis: a single practice experience. Dig Dis Sci. 2009;54:2519–2522
  103. Aw MM, Dhawan A, Samyn M, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil as rescue treatment for autoimmune liver disease in children: a 5-year follow-up. J Hepatol. 2009;51:156–160
  104. Spencer CM, McTavish D, Budesonide . A review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic efficacy in inflammatory bowel disease. Drugs. 1995;50:854–872
  105. McKeage K, Goa KL. Budesonide (Entocort EC Capsules): a review of its therapeutic use in the management of active Crohn's disease in adults. Drugs. 2002;62:2263–2282
  106. Seow CH, Benchimol EI, Griffiths AM, et al. Budesonide for induction of remission in Crohn's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;[CD000296]
  107. Danielsson A, Prytz H. Oral budesonide for treatment of autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 1994;8:585–590
  108. Czaja AJ, Lindor KD. Failure of budesonide in a pilot study of treatment-dependent autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology. 2000;119:1312–1316
  109. Wiegand J, Schuler A, Kanzler S, et al. Budesonide in previously untreated autoimmune hepatitis. Liver Int. 2005;25:927–934
  110. Geier A, Gartung C, Dietrich CG, et al. Side effects of budesonide in liver cirrhosis due to chronic autoimmune hepatitis: influence of hepatic metabolism versus portosystemic shunts on a patient complicated with HCC. World J Gastroenterol. 2003;9:2681–2685
  111. Csepregi A, Rocken C, Treiber G, et al. Budesonide induces complete remission in autoimmune hepatitis. World J Gastroenterol. 2006;12:1362–1366
  112. Zandieh I, Krygier D, Wong V, et al. The use of budesonide in the treatment of autoimmune hepatitis in Canada. Can J Gastroenterol. 2008;22:388–392
  113. Manns MP, Bahr MJ, Woynarowski M, et al. Budesonide 3mg tid is superior to prednisone in combination with azathioprine in the treatment of autoimmune hepatitis. J Hepatol. 2008;48:S369
  114. Manns MP, Woynarowski M, Kreisel W, et al. Budesonide 3mg bid in combination with azathioprine as maintenance treatment of autoimmune hepatitis—final results of a large multicenter international trial. Hepatology. 2008;48:376A–377A
  115. Shevach EM. Regulatory T cells in autoimmunity. Annu Rev Immunol. 2000;18:423–449
  116. Piccirillo CA, Shevach EM. Naturally-occurring CD4+CD25+ immunoregulatory T cells: central players in the arena of peripheral tolerance. Semin Immunol. 2004;16:81–88
  117. Piccirillo CA. Regulatory T cells in health and disease. Cytokine. 2008;43:395–401
  118. Piccirillo CA, d’Hennezel E, Sgouroudis E, et al. CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells in the control of autoimmunity: in vivo veritas. Curr Opin Immunol. 2008;20:655–662
  119. Longhi MS, Hussain MJ, Mitry RR, et al. Functional study of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells in health and autoimmune hepatitis. J Immunol. 2006;176:4484–4491
  120. Longhi MS, Ma Y, Bogdanos DP, et al. Impairment of CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T-cells in autoimmune liver disease. J Hepatol. 2004;41:31–37
  121. Longhi MS, Ma Y, Mitry RR, et al. Effect of CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T-cells on CD8 T-cell function in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. J Autoimmun. 2005;25:63–71
  122. Longhi MS, Meda F, Wang P, et al. Expansion and de novo generation of potentially therapeutic regulatory T cells in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology. 2008;47:581–591
  123. Ferri S, Longhi MS, De Molo C, et al. A multifaceted imbalance of T-cells with regulatory function characterizes type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology, in press.
  124. Christen U, Hintermann E, Jaeckel E. New animal models for autoimmune hepatitis. Semin Liver Dis. 2009;29:262–272
  125. Hardtke-Wolenski M, Jaeckel E. Mouse models for experimental autoimmune hepatitis: limits and chances. Dig Dis. 2010;28:70–79
  126. Lapierre P, Beland K, Djilali-Saiah I, et al. Type 2 autoimmune hepatitis murine model: the influence of genetic background in disease development. J Autoimmun. 2006;26:82–89
  127. Lapierre P, Beland K, Martin C, et al. Forkhead box p3(+) regulatory T cell underlies male resistance to experimental type 2 autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology. 2010;51:1789–1798
  128. Christen U, Holdener M, Hintermann E. Cytochrome P450 2D6 as a model antigen. Dig Dis. 2010;28:80–85
  129. Holdener M, Hintermann E, Bayer M, et al. Breaking tolerance to the natural human liver autoantigen cytochrome P450 2D6 by virus infection. J Exp Med. 2008;205:1409–1422
  130. Czaja A.J. . Emerging opportunities for site-specific molecular and cellular interventions in autoimmune hepatitis. Dig Dis Sci. 2010;[Epub ahead of print]

PII: S1590-8658(10)00207-0

doi: 10.1016/j.dld.2010.05.019

Digestive and Liver Disease
Volume 42, Issue 11 , Pages 757-764 , November 2010